Energy availability is a real concern for everyone. Without energy or with access to much less energy than we currently use, we could not live in the same way, and life would not be easy. For example, before the French Revolution in 1789, the average life expectancy in France was below 30 years and in the United States it was 34 years. Now it is 80 years in France and 78 years in the United States. This is due in a signifi cant measure to a ready access to energy which spurred the development of the agricultural, industrial, and medical resources that played a key role in increasing this life expectancy. Unfortunately,
energy resources are not evenly distributed throughout the world and a large part of the world's population has a very low standard of living and a short life span. The poorest among them have life expectancies just slightly above that of an inhabitant of France in 1789.
Since 1789, the world population has increased dramatically, from a bit less than a billion inhabitants to above 6.5 billion. The average energy needs of these inhabitants are much greater than those of two centuries ago. In addition, after a long period in which energy was relatively cheap, its price is now increasing, and this is very likely just the beginning of a long trend. As a consequence humankind is no longer a small perturbation on planet Earth, and every day we face the possibility of increasingly negative consequences of human activities for the environment. It is time to take care of our planet and
to make use of its wealth more carefully than before. In this new paradigm, energy plays a central role.
Concerned about our energy future? Turn to this guide for easy-to-grasp and up-to-date coverage of the many aspects of the energy value chain:Oil and natural gas
Coal
Fossil fuels and the greenhouse effect
Energy from water
Biomass
Solar energy
Geothermal energy
Wind energy
Nuclear energy
Electricity
Energy storage
Transportation
Housing
Smart energy consumption
Hydrogen
Armed with the knowledge in this book, students, teachers, decision-makers, politicians, and consumers can form educated and informed opinions on the future of energy and its impact on the economy, health, and the environment.
Table of contents : OUR ENERGY FUTURE......Page 5
CONTENTS......Page 7
Preface......Page 15
Acknowledgments......Page 19
1.1.1. Primary and Secondary Energy......Page 21
1.1.2. Energy Units......Page 23
1.1.3. Power......Page 24
1.1.4. Energy and First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 25
1.1.5. Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 26
1.1.6. Exergy......Page 27
1.1.7. Going Back to the Past......Page 28
1.1.8. Humans and Energy......Page 29
1.2. Always More!......Page 30
1.2.1. Why Do We Need More Energy?......Page 31
1.2.2. Energy Sources We Use......Page 34
1.2.3. Security of Supply......Page 37
1.2.4. Environmental Concerns......Page 43
2. Oil and Natural Gas......Page 44
2.1. Genesis of Oil and Natural Gas......Page 45
2.2. Recovering Oil and Gas......Page 48
2.3. Peak Oil......Page 51
2.4.1. Crude Oil Reserves......Page 53
2.4.2. Natural Gas Reserves......Page 54
2.5. Properties of Hydrocarbons......Page 56
2.6. Oil Fields......Page 58
2.7. Prices......Page 59
2.8. Consumption......Page 61
2.9. Electricity Generation......Page 64
2.10. Impact on Environment......Page 67
2.11. Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources......Page 70
2.11.1. Oil Shale......Page 71
2.11.2. Tar Sands......Page 72
2.11.3. Coal Bed Methane......Page 73
2.11.4. Methane Hydrates......Page 74
2.12. Conclusion......Page 75
3. Coal: Fossil Fuel of the Future......Page 76
3.1. Genesis of Coal......Page 77
3.2. Rank of Coals......Page 78
3.3. Classification of Coals......Page 79
3.4. Peat......Page 81
3.6. Coal Reserves......Page 83
3.7. Production and Consumption......Page 88
3.8. Electricity Production......Page 91
3.9.1. Advanced Pulverized Coal Combustion......Page 93
3.10. Combined Heat and Power Generation......Page 94
3.11. Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants......Page 95
3.13. Direct Coal Liquefaction......Page 96
3.14. Indirect Coal Liquefaction......Page 97
3.15. Direct or Indirect CTL Technology?......Page 98
3.16. Carbon Capture and Sequestration......Page 99
3.16.1. Capture......Page 100
3.16.3. Sequestration......Page 104
3.16.4. Cost......Page 106
3.17. Coal Pit Accidents......Page 107
3.18. Environmental Impacts......Page 108
3.19. Conclusion......Page 109
4. Fossil Fuels and Greenhouse Effect......Page 110
4.1. Greenhouse Effect......Page 111
4.2. Greenhouse Gases......Page 114
4.3. Weather and Climate......Page 118
4.5. Anthropogenic Emissions......Page 119
4.7. Global Warming Potentials......Page 123
4.8. Increase of Average Temperature......Page 124
4.9. Model Predictions......Page 126
4.10. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 127
4.11. Consequences......Page 132
4.12. Other Impacts on Ocean......Page 134
4.13. Factor 4......Page 135
4.14. Kyoto Protocol......Page 137
4.15. Conclusion......Page 139
5.1. Hydropower......Page 141
5.1.1. Hydropower: Important Source of Electricity......Page 142
5.1.2. Dams and Diversions......Page 146
5.1.3. Head and Flow......Page 147
5.1.4. Turbines......Page 148
5.1.5. Small-Scale Hydropower......Page 150
5.1.6. Environmental Concerns......Page 151
5.1.7. Costs......Page 153
5.2. Energy from the Ocean......Page 154
5.2.1. Offshore Wind Energy......Page 155
5.2.2. Wave Energy......Page 156
5.2.3. Tidal Energy......Page 158
5.2.4. Marine Current Energy......Page 160
5.2.5. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion......Page 161
5.2.6. Osmotic Energy......Page 162
6. Biomass......Page 165
6.1. Producing Biomass......Page 166
6.2. An Old Energy Resource......Page 168
6.3. Electricity Production......Page 169
6.4.1. Direct-Combustion Technologies......Page 171
6.4.3. Biomass Gasification......Page 172
6.4.4. Anaerobic Digestion......Page 173
6.4.5. Pyrolysis......Page 174
6.5. Heat Production......Page 175
6.7. Environmental Impact......Page 176
6.8. Market Share......Page 178
6.9. Biofuels......Page 179
6.9.1.1. Biofuels for Gasoline Engines......Page 181
6.9.1.2. Biofuels for Diesel Engines......Page 187
6.9.2. Second-Generation Biofuels......Page 189
6.10. From Well to Wheels......Page 190
6.11. Conclusion......Page 191
7. Solar Energy......Page 193
7.1. Solar Energy: A Huge Potential......Page 194
7.2.1. Producing Hot Water for Domestic Purposes......Page 195
7.2.2. Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation Using Solar Energy......Page 197
7.2.3. The Solar Cooker......Page 199
7.3.1. Parabolic Troughs......Page 200
7.3.2. Power Towers......Page 202
7.4. Solar Chimneys or Towers......Page 203
7.5. Photovoltaic Systems......Page 205
7.5.1. Market Dominated by Silicon......Page 206
7.5.2. Other Photovoltaic Technologies......Page 207
7.5.3. Applications......Page 209
7.6. Electricity Storage......Page 214
7.8. Conclusion......Page 215
8. Geothermal Energy......Page 217
8.1. Available in Many Places......Page 219
8.2. Different Uses......Page 222
8.3. Technologies......Page 223
8.4. Geothermal Energy in the World......Page 227
8.5. Conclusion......Page 230
9.1. Already a Long History......Page 231
9.2. From Theory to Practice......Page 233
9.3. Development of Wind Power......Page 235
9.4. Off-Shore Wind Turbines......Page 243
9.5. Conclusion......Page 244
10.1. Basics of Nuclear Energy......Page 245
10.1.1. Atoms and Nuclei......Page 246
10.1.2. Radioactivity......Page 247
10.1.3. Energy and Mass......Page 250
10.1.4. Fission......Page 251
10.1.6. Chain Reaction......Page 253
10.1.7. Critical Mass......Page 256
10.1.8. Nuclear Reactors......Page 257
10.1.9. Natural Nuclear Reactors: Oklo......Page 258
10.1.10. Conclusion......Page 259
10.2.1. Different Technologies......Page 260
10.2.2. Selection Process......Page 262
10.2.4. Uranium Resources......Page 265
10.2.5. Fuel Cycles......Page 268
10.2.6. Safety......Page 272
10.2.7. Nuclear Waste......Page 276
10.2.8. Conclusion......Page 277
10.3. Thermonuclear Fusion......Page 278
10.3.1. Nuclei: Concentrated Sources of Energy......Page 279
10.3.3. Fusion of Light Nuclei......Page 280
10.3.4. Difficulties......Page 281
10.3.6. Thermonuclear Fusion in Tokamaks......Page 282
10.3.7. ITER: New Step Towards Mastering Fusion......Page 283
10.3.8. About Fuel Reserves......Page 284
10.3.10. Safety and Waste Issues......Page 285
Appendix......Page 286
11. Electricity: Smart Use of Energy......Page 288
11.1. Rapid Development......Page 289
11.2. Energy Sources for Electricity Production......Page 292
11.3. No Unique Solution......Page 296
11.4. From Mechanical Energy to Consumer......Page 299
11.5. Impact on Environment......Page 301
11.6. Cost......Page 302
11.7. Conclusion......Page 303
12. Energy Storage: Weak Point of Energy Supply Chain......Page 305
12.1. Electricity Storage......Page 307
12.1.1. Characteristics of Electricity Storage......Page 309
12.1.2. Large-Quantity Storage Technologies......Page 310
12.1.3. Electrochemical Batteries......Page 316
12.1.3.1. Primary Batteries......Page 317
12.1.3.2. Rechargeable Batteries......Page 320
12.1.3.3. Flow Batteries......Page 326
12.1.4. Supercapacitors......Page 329
12.1.5. Flywheels......Page 332
12.2. Thermal Energy Storage......Page 333
12.2.2. Sensible Heat Storage......Page 335
12.2.3. Phase Change Materials......Page 336
12.2.4. Thermochemical and Thermophysical Energy Storage......Page 337
12.2.5. Applications of Thermal Energy Storage......Page 338
12.2.6. Underground Energy Storage......Page 339
12.2.7. Conclusion......Page 341
13.1. Short History of Transportation......Page 342
13.2. Energy and Transportation......Page 344
13.3. Road Transportation......Page 345
13.4. Ship Transportation......Page 350
13.5. Air Transport......Page 352
13.6. Car Dynamics......Page 353
13.7. Fuels for Road Transportation......Page 355
13.8. CO(2) Emissions......Page 358
13.9. Hybrid Vehicles......Page 366
13.10. Electric Vehicles......Page 369
13.11. Conclusion......Page 371
14.1. Importance of Housing......Page 372
14.2. Towards More Efficient Housing......Page 376
14.3. Different Regions, Different Solutions......Page 381
14.4. Bioclimatic Architecture......Page 382
14.5. Insulation......Page 384
14.6. Glazing......Page 389
14.7. Lighting......Page 390
14.8. Ventilation......Page 394
14.9. Water......Page 395
14.10. Energy Use in a Household......Page 397
14.11. Heat Pumps......Page 399
14.12. Impact on Environment......Page 401
14.13. Conclusion......Page 403
15. Smart Energy Consumption......Page 406
15.1. Housing......Page 407
15.2. Improving the Way We Consume Energy......Page 408
15.3. Cogeneration......Page 409
15.4. Standby Consumption......Page 412
15.5. Lighting......Page 416
15.6. Transportation......Page 417
15.6.1. Technology......Page 420
15.6.2. Individuals......Page 421
15.7. Conclusion......Page 423
16.1.1. Properties......Page 425
16.1.2. Production......Page 427
16.1.3. Storage......Page 437
16.1.4. Hydrogen Transport and Distribution......Page 442
16.2.1. Fundamentals of Fuel Cells......Page 445
16.2.2. Different Types of Fuel Cells......Page 448
16.2.3. Transportation......Page 457
16.2.4. Direct Use of Hydrogen......Page 464
16.2.5. Direct Combined Heat and Power......Page 466
16.2.6. Hydrogen and Portable Devices......Page 467
16.2.8. Conclusion......Page 468
17. Conclusion......Page 471
Exercises......Page 474
Solutions......Page 483
Bibliography......Page 492
Index......Page 497
CONTENTS......Page 7
Preface......Page 15
Acknowledgments......Page 19
1.1.1. Primary and Secondary Energy......Page 21
1.1.2. Energy Units......Page 23
1.1.3. Power......Page 24
1.1.4. Energy and First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 25
1.1.5. Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 26
1.1.6. Exergy......Page 27
1.1.7. Going Back to the Past......Page 28
1.1.8. Humans and Energy......Page 29
1.2. Always More!......Page 30
1.2.1. Why Do We Need More Energy?......Page 31
1.2.2. Energy Sources We Use......Page 34
1.2.3. Security of Supply......Page 37
1.2.4. Environmental Concerns......Page 43
2. Oil and Natural Gas......Page 44
2.1. Genesis of Oil and Natural Gas......Page 45
2.2. Recovering Oil and Gas......Page 48
2.3. Peak Oil......Page 51
2.4.1. Crude Oil Reserves......Page 53
2.4.2. Natural Gas Reserves......Page 54
2.5. Properties of Hydrocarbons......Page 56
2.6. Oil Fields......Page 58
2.7. Prices......Page 59
2.8. Consumption......Page 61
2.9. Electricity Generation......Page 64
2.10. Impact on Environment......Page 67
2.11. Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources......Page 70
2.11.1. Oil Shale......Page 71
2.11.2. Tar Sands......Page 72
2.11.3. Coal Bed Methane......Page 73
2.11.4. Methane Hydrates......Page 74
2.12. Conclusion......Page 75
3. Coal: Fossil Fuel of the Future......Page 76
3.1. Genesis of Coal......Page 77
3.2. Rank of Coals......Page 78
3.3. Classification of Coals......Page 79
3.4. Peat......Page 81
3.6. Coal Reserves......Page 83
3.7. Production and Consumption......Page 88
3.8. Electricity Production......Page 91
3.9.1. Advanced Pulverized Coal Combustion......Page 93
3.10. Combined Heat and Power Generation......Page 94
3.11. Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants......Page 95
3.13. Direct Coal Liquefaction......Page 96
3.14. Indirect Coal Liquefaction......Page 97
3.15. Direct or Indirect CTL Technology?......Page 98
3.16. Carbon Capture and Sequestration......Page 99
3.16.1. Capture......Page 100
3.16.3. Sequestration......Page 104
3.16.4. Cost......Page 106
3.17. Coal Pit Accidents......Page 107
3.18. Environmental Impacts......Page 108
3.19. Conclusion......Page 109
4. Fossil Fuels and Greenhouse Effect......Page 110
4.1. Greenhouse Effect......Page 111
4.2. Greenhouse Gases......Page 114
4.3. Weather and Climate......Page 118
4.5. Anthropogenic Emissions......Page 119
4.7. Global Warming Potentials......Page 123
4.8. Increase of Average Temperature......Page 124
4.9. Model Predictions......Page 126
4.10. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 127
4.11. Consequences......Page 132
4.12. Other Impacts on Ocean......Page 134
4.13. Factor 4......Page 135
4.14. Kyoto Protocol......Page 137
4.15. Conclusion......Page 139
5.1. Hydropower......Page 141
5.1.1. Hydropower: Important Source of Electricity......Page 142
5.1.2. Dams and Diversions......Page 146
5.1.3. Head and Flow......Page 147
5.1.4. Turbines......Page 148
5.1.5. Small-Scale Hydropower......Page 150
5.1.6. Environmental Concerns......Page 151
5.1.7. Costs......Page 153
5.2. Energy from the Ocean......Page 154
5.2.1. Offshore Wind Energy......Page 155
5.2.2. Wave Energy......Page 156
5.2.3. Tidal Energy......Page 158
5.2.4. Marine Current Energy......Page 160
5.2.5. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion......Page 161
5.2.6. Osmotic Energy......Page 162
6. Biomass......Page 165
6.1. Producing Biomass......Page 166
6.2. An Old Energy Resource......Page 168
6.3. Electricity Production......Page 169
6.4.1. Direct-Combustion Technologies......Page 171
6.4.3. Biomass Gasification......Page 172
6.4.4. Anaerobic Digestion......Page 173
6.4.5. Pyrolysis......Page 174
6.5. Heat Production......Page 175
6.7. Environmental Impact......Page 176
6.8. Market Share......Page 178
6.9. Biofuels......Page 179
6.9.1.1. Biofuels for Gasoline Engines......Page 181
6.9.1.2. Biofuels for Diesel Engines......Page 187
6.9.2. Second-Generation Biofuels......Page 189
6.10. From Well to Wheels......Page 190
6.11. Conclusion......Page 191
7. Solar Energy......Page 193
7.1. Solar Energy: A Huge Potential......Page 194
7.2.1. Producing Hot Water for Domestic Purposes......Page 195
7.2.2. Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation Using Solar Energy......Page 197
7.2.3. The Solar Cooker......Page 199
7.3.1. Parabolic Troughs......Page 200
7.3.2. Power Towers......Page 202
7.4. Solar Chimneys or Towers......Page 203
7.5. Photovoltaic Systems......Page 205
7.5.1. Market Dominated by Silicon......Page 206
7.5.2. Other Photovoltaic Technologies......Page 207
7.5.3. Applications......Page 209
7.6. Electricity Storage......Page 214
7.8. Conclusion......Page 215
8. Geothermal Energy......Page 217
8.1. Available in Many Places......Page 219
8.2. Different Uses......Page 222
8.3. Technologies......Page 223
8.4. Geothermal Energy in the World......Page 227
8.5. Conclusion......Page 230
9.1. Already a Long History......Page 231
9.2. From Theory to Practice......Page 233
9.3. Development of Wind Power......Page 235
9.4. Off-Shore Wind Turbines......Page 243
9.5. Conclusion......Page 244
10.1. Basics of Nuclear Energy......Page 245
10.1.1. Atoms and Nuclei......Page 246
10.1.2. Radioactivity......Page 247
10.1.3. Energy and Mass......Page 250
10.1.4. Fission......Page 251
10.1.6. Chain Reaction......Page 253
10.1.7. Critical Mass......Page 256
10.1.8. Nuclear Reactors......Page 257
10.1.9. Natural Nuclear Reactors: Oklo......Page 258
10.1.10. Conclusion......Page 259
10.2.1. Different Technologies......Page 260
10.2.2. Selection Process......Page 262
10.2.4. Uranium Resources......Page 265
10.2.5. Fuel Cycles......Page 268
10.2.6. Safety......Page 272
10.2.7. Nuclear Waste......Page 276
10.2.8. Conclusion......Page 277
10.3. Thermonuclear Fusion......Page 278
10.3.1. Nuclei: Concentrated Sources of Energy......Page 279
10.3.3. Fusion of Light Nuclei......Page 280
10.3.4. Difficulties......Page 281
10.3.6. Thermonuclear Fusion in Tokamaks......Page 282
10.3.7. ITER: New Step Towards Mastering Fusion......Page 283
10.3.8. About Fuel Reserves......Page 284
10.3.10. Safety and Waste Issues......Page 285
Appendix......Page 286
11. Electricity: Smart Use of Energy......Page 288
11.1. Rapid Development......Page 289
11.2. Energy Sources for Electricity Production......Page 292
11.3. No Unique Solution......Page 296
11.4. From Mechanical Energy to Consumer......Page 299
11.5. Impact on Environment......Page 301
11.6. Cost......Page 302
11.7. Conclusion......Page 303
12. Energy Storage: Weak Point of Energy Supply Chain......Page 305
12.1. Electricity Storage......Page 307
12.1.1. Characteristics of Electricity Storage......Page 309
12.1.2. Large-Quantity Storage Technologies......Page 310
12.1.3. Electrochemical Batteries......Page 316
12.1.3.1. Primary Batteries......Page 317
12.1.3.2. Rechargeable Batteries......Page 320
12.1.3.3. Flow Batteries......Page 326
12.1.4. Supercapacitors......Page 329
12.1.5. Flywheels......Page 332
12.2. Thermal Energy Storage......Page 333
12.2.2. Sensible Heat Storage......Page 335
12.2.3. Phase Change Materials......Page 336
12.2.4. Thermochemical and Thermophysical Energy Storage......Page 337
12.2.5. Applications of Thermal Energy Storage......Page 338
12.2.6. Underground Energy Storage......Page 339
12.2.7. Conclusion......Page 341
13.1. Short History of Transportation......Page 342
13.2. Energy and Transportation......Page 344
13.3. Road Transportation......Page 345
13.4. Ship Transportation......Page 350
13.5. Air Transport......Page 352
13.6. Car Dynamics......Page 353
13.7. Fuels for Road Transportation......Page 355
13.8. CO(2) Emissions......Page 358
13.9. Hybrid Vehicles......Page 366
13.10. Electric Vehicles......Page 369
13.11. Conclusion......Page 371
14.1. Importance of Housing......Page 372
14.2. Towards More Efficient Housing......Page 376
14.3. Different Regions, Different Solutions......Page 381
14.4. Bioclimatic Architecture......Page 382
14.5. Insulation......Page 384
14.6. Glazing......Page 389
14.7. Lighting......Page 390
14.8. Ventilation......Page 394
14.9. Water......Page 395
14.10. Energy Use in a Household......Page 397
14.11. Heat Pumps......Page 399
14.12. Impact on Environment......Page 401
14.13. Conclusion......Page 403
15. Smart Energy Consumption......Page 406
15.1. Housing......Page 407
15.2. Improving the Way We Consume Energy......Page 408
15.3. Cogeneration......Page 409
15.4. Standby Consumption......Page 412
15.5. Lighting......Page 416
15.6. Transportation......Page 417
15.6.1. Technology......Page 420
15.6.2. Individuals......Page 421
15.7. Conclusion......Page 423
16.1.1. Properties......Page 425
16.1.2. Production......Page 427
16.1.3. Storage......Page 437
16.1.4. Hydrogen Transport and Distribution......Page 442
16.2.1. Fundamentals of Fuel Cells......Page 445
16.2.2. Different Types of Fuel Cells......Page 448
16.2.3. Transportation......Page 457
16.2.4. Direct Use of Hydrogen......Page 464
16.2.5. Direct Combined Heat and Power......Page 466
16.2.6. Hydrogen and Portable Devices......Page 467
16.2.8. Conclusion......Page 468
17. Conclusion......Page 471
Exercises......Page 474
Solutions......Page 483
Bibliography......Page 492
Index......Page 497
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