Powering Planet Earth, Energy Solutions for the Future - Dr. Nicola Armaroli, Prof. Vincenzo Balzani, Prof. Nick Serpone(auth.) (2013)

Description

In their book Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani and Nick Serpone uncover the background details associated with a transition to sustainable energy production that are routinely swept under the table in public discussions. They are not only concerned with the (alleged) advantages

and disadvantages of any one energy generation technology from a technical viewpoint, but also with the ecological, economic, political and social consequences of an inevitable transition. In a highly readable manner aimed at an international audience, the authors introduce the often misused and sometimes abused term 'energy' and give a lucid account of the development of energy production from timber to nuclear energy and renewable energies. They compare various energy generation methods with respect to their efficiency and practicability for large-scale implementation and examine if, 

In their book Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani and Nick Serpone uncover the background details associated with a transition to sustainable energy production that are routinely swept under the table in public discussions. They are not only concerned with the (alleged) advantages

and disadvantages of any one energy generation technology from a technical viewpoint, but also with the ecological, economic, political and social consequences of an inevitable transition. In a highly readable manner aimed at an international audience, the authors introduce the often misused and sometimes abused term 'energy' and give a lucid account of the development of energy production from timber to nuclear energy and renewable energies. They compare various energy generation methods with respect to their efficiency and practicability for large-scale implementation and examine if, and how, these methods live up to the expectations and promises their proponents make. In addition, the authors juxtapose the political and economic prerequisites in different regions of the world that advance, or hinder, an energy turnaround. They round off their book by debunking the seventeen most popular myths often cited in discussions on energy issues. As a result, the authors provide ammunition for debate, underpin (and unsettle) opinions using facts, and challenge comfortable and popular chains of reasoning.

Table of Contents

Preface XIII
Introduction 1
1 What Is Energy? 5
Energy and Related Terms 6
From One Energy Form to Another 7
Sources of Energy 8
The Pillars of the Universe 9
Particles in Motion 9
Heat (Warmth) - an Exchangeable Energy 10
You Can't Run Away from Them - the Principles of Thermodynamics 10
Einstein's Equation: E = mc2 13
From Kilowatt-hour to the Barrel of Oil 14
From a Chemical Bond to a Tsunami 15
2 Yesterday and Today 17
The Energy Slaves 17
From Coal to Coal? 19
Hidden Energy 21
From Faraday to Blackouts 22
From Muscle Work to Jet Aircraft 22
Petroleum to Food 24
From Fire to Air Conditioning 25
From Horseback Messengers to E-mails 26
From Gunpowder to the Atomic Bomb 27
Emerging Issues 29
3 How Much Energy Goes to Waste? 31
The Largest Explosion of All Time 31
Obese and Miserable 32
Fruits Out of Season 33
From Whale Oil to Pollution by Light 33
At Full Throttle 35
A Desperate Case - the Transportation System 36
Let's Get a Move on 38
4 Energy in the Spaceship's Hold 41
Crude Oil 41
Peaking of Oil Production? 43
Natural Gas 44
Coal and CO2 Rise 45
The Most Traded Commodities 45
The Hidden Treasure 48
Energy Also Travels 50
Costly Energy Invoices 51
Alliances, Tensions, Wars 52
5 Collateral Damage 55
The Planet Overheats 56
Agreements and Disagreements 57
Jailing the Offender? 59
A Subtle Danger 59
Rain Is No Longer What It Used to be 61
Financial Compensation 62
Minimize! Save the Planet 63
6 Energy from the Atom 65
Splitting the Atom 66
Nuclear Accidents 68
An Inconvenient Legacy 71
Where Do We Store Nuclear Wastes? 71
We'll Settle the Bill Later 73
Current Nuclear Power Plants 76
Tomorrow's Nuclear Power Plants (Maybe) 78
The Harsh Reality of the Marketplace 79
Solution or Problem? 80
Nuclear Fusion: if Not Roses . . . Then What? 81
7 Energy from the Sun 83
Conversion and Exploitation of Sunlight 84
From Light to Heat 84
From Light to Electricity 85
Concentrating Sunlight 88
Light to Chemical Energy - Natural Photosynthesis 88
Light to Chemical Energy - the Sunshine Vitamin 89
Biomass and Biofuels: Yes, but . . . ! 92
Artifi cial Photosynthesis 93
The Hydrogen Myth 95
8 Energy from Air, Water, and Land 99
Wind Changes 99
Wind Farms 101
Water � between Past and Future 105
Geothermal Energy 108
Sea Power 111
9 Fukushima and the Future of Nuclear Energy 115
What Happened at Fukushima Daiichi? 115
The Consequences for the Population 117
A Lesson from the Fukushima Disaster 118
What Is Today�s Cost of Nuclear Energy? 120
Should Italy Go Back to Nuclear Energy? 121
The Fate of Nuclear Energy 123
Global Expansion of Nuclear Power? 125
Is It Worthwhile to Get Energy Using Technologies Exposed to Great Risks? 126
10 Energy Italy 127
Stop Navigating Blind 127
Conserve Energy! Where? How? 128
Italy a Country with an Abundance of Sunlight 129
Wind, Geothermal Energy, Biomass 131
Conservation and Renewables - a Summary 132
11 Energy Canada 133
Primary Energy Resources 133
Oil Sands or Tar Sands? 136
Oil Sands and Their Environmental Impact 138
Water Usage 139
Natural Gas Usage 139
Greenhouse Gases 139
Coal in Canada 141
Natural Gas 142
Nuclear Energy and Electricity 143
Electricity 146
Renewable Energy - Wind Power 148
Renewable Energy - Solar Power 150
Renewable Energy - Biomass Energy 150
Renewable Energy - Geothermal Energy 151
Renewable Energy - Sea Power 151
Canada and Energy - Doing More 151
12 Energy USA 153
Primary Energy Resources 153
Coal - Supply and Demand 156
Natural Gas - Supply and Demand 159
Nuclear Power 161
Historical Notes 161
Present Situation 162
Nuclear Renaissance 164
Water Usage in Nuclear Reactors 165
Plant Decommissioning 165
Renewable Energy 166
Renewable Energy - Wind Power 167
Renewable Energy - Solar Thermal Power 170
Renewable Energy - Solar Photovoltaic 173
Renewable Energy - Geothermal Energy 174
Renewable Energy - Biomass 176
Renewable Energy - Biofuels 179
13 Energy UK 181
Primary Energy Resources 181
Fossil Fuels 183
Fossil Fuels - Coal 184
Fossil Fuels - Natural Gas 184
Nuclear Power 185
Nuclear Waste Management and Disposal 188
Windscale Fire and Decommissioning 188
Renewable Energy 190
Renewable Energy - Wind Power 191
Some Historical Notes 191
Renewable Energy - Solar Power 194
Renewable Energy - Geothermal Energy 196
Renewable Energy - Wave and Tidal Power 197
Renewable Energy - Biofuels 198
Electricity in the United Kingdom 198
14 Global Trends 201
A Shot at the Wrong Target 202
Sustainability of the Photovoltaic Option 204
Will Renewable Energy Sources Suffi ce? 205
But There Is Always a Limit 206
15 Scenarios for the Future 209
(Un)Sustainable Development 209
America's Big Footprint 210
The More We Consume, the More We're Happy? 211
That's Enough! 212
Strategies 213
At the Crossroads 214
Transition to Renewable Energy Resources 215
The Scientist's and the Politician's Responsibility 216
Challenges and Opportunities 216
Appendices 219
Appendix A: 17 Myths to be Dispelled 221
Appendix B: Maybe You Didn�t Know That . . . 225
Consumption 225
Transportation 226
Nuclear Energy 226
Renewable Energy Sources 227
Wastes and Pollution 227
Disparity 228
Appendix C 229
Appendix D: Bibliography 231
Useful Websites 232
General Energy Databases 232
Data on Resources, Pollution and the State of the Planet 233
Renewable Energies 233
Nuclear Energy 234
Efficiency and Energy Education 234
Climate Changes 234
For Children and Teachers 234
Index 235


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Author Information

Nicola Armaroli is Research Director in the Italian National Research Council (CNR) at the University of Bologna, Italy. He obtained in PhD in chemical sciences in 1994 and was post-doc at the Center for Photochemical Sciences at Bowling Green State University, Ohio, USA. His current research is concerned with the photochemistry and photophysics of coordination compounds, carbon nanostructures and supramolecular materials, with focus on luminescence and photoinduced energy- and electron-transfer. This work is of interest both in fundamental science and technological applications, such as solar energy conversion and lighting devices.

Vincenzo Balzani is Professor Emeritus at the University of Bologna where has been doing research and teaching in chemistry since 1973. He was visiting Professor in Canada, Israel, France and Belgium, headed various scientific committees and institutes and has held over 300 lectures worldwide. Alongside his membership of several editorial boards, Vincenzo Balzani has six books and more than 500 papers to his name. His research interests include photochemistry, photophysics, supramolecular chemistry, electron transfer reactions, molecular-level devices and machines, molecular nanotechnology, and photochemical solar energy conversion.

Nick Serpone is Professor Emeritus and Visiting Professor at the University of Pavia, Italy. As a senior academic and research scientist in organic and photochemistry, program manager and industry consultant with extensive North American and international experience, he has an intimate knowledge of the working relationships between academia, industry and government agencies in various countries. Nick Serpone is a prolific editor and contributor to numerous books and journals, with over 360 papers published in a variety of prestigious journals. Nick Serpone is a frequent Keynote Address Speaker and Invited Plenary Lecturer.

"The book can be read by generalists who want to expand their knowledge of energy and by those concerned with energy policy and energy advocates who want to deal with a leading challenge to the continued existence of the world as it exists today."  (Energy Technology, 14 February 2014)

"As a result, the authors provide ammunition for debate, underpin (and unsettle) opinions using facts, and challenge comfortable and popular chains of reasoning."  (ETDE Energy Database, 1 December 2013)

"A valuable resource for both serious students of the field and general readers.  Summing Up: Highly recommended.  All students, researchers/faculty, professionals/practitioners, and general audiences.  (Choice, 1 November 2013)

Heating Systems, Plant and Control

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Heating Systems, Plant and Control
Contents
1 Introduction1
1.1Heating: the fundamental building service1
1.2Low-pressure hot water1
1.3The need for ef?cient heating systems2
1.4Scope of the book3
1.5Content of the book: an overview37

PART AHEAT GENERATION
2 Boilers and Burners9
2.1De?nition of a boiler9
2.2Principal functional elements of a boiler9
2.2.1Gas-?red boilers9
2.2.2Oil-?red boilers10
2.2.3Solid fuel boilers12
2.3The boiler block12
2.3.1Function of the boiler block12
2.3.2Configuration and design12
2.3.3The multi-pass principle15
2.3.4Water content and temperature differential16
2.3.5Wet-base and dry-base types18
2.4The burner18
2.4.1Function of the burner18
2.4.2Boiler fuels and the combustion process18
2.4.3Burner design23
2.4.4Atmospheric natural gas burners25
2.4.5Fan-assisted and forced-draught natural gas burners29
2.4.6Premix natural gas burners32
2.4.7Other natural gas burners34
2.4.8Burners for other gases34
2.4.9Pressure-jet oil burners36
2.4.10Other atomizing oil burners38
2.4.11Dual-fuel burners39
2.5Burner operation and control39
2.5.1Functions of burner control39
2.5.2Modes of control for burner output40
2.5.3On/off control of burner output40
2.5.4High/low/off control of burner output42
2.5.5Modulating control of burner output45
2.5.6Control of burner safety46
2.6The burner gas line47
2.7The boiler control system49
2.7.1Boiler controls and system controls49
2.7.2Control of the burner50
2.7.3Boiler safety and limit controls52
2.7.4Reporting functions: remote monitoring54
2.8The boiler casing55



3Types of Boiler and Their Needs56
3.1Types of boiler56
3.2Boiler construction materials56
3.2.1Range of materials56
3.2.2Cast-iron56
3.2.3Steel57
3.2.4Copper and aluminium58
3.3Methods of construction59
3.3.1Cast-iron sectional boilers59
3.3.2Fabricated steel boilers61
3.3.3Copper boilers65
3.4Fire-tube and water-tube boilers67
3.5Modular boiler installations67
3.5.1Types of modular boiler installation67
3.5.2Modular boiler systems67
3.5.3True modular boilers69
3.6Heating, hot water service and combined applications72
3.7Condensing operation73
3.7.1Principles and bene?ts73
3.7.2Requirements of condensing operation78
3.7.3Condensing boilers79
3.7.4Condensing economisers84
3.8Boiler ef?ciency87
3.8.1Choosing the correct de?nition87
3.8.2Basis of the de?nition87
3.8.3Gross and net calori?c value88
3.8.4Overall ef?ciency89
3.8.5Combustion ef?ciency90
3.8.6Seasonal ef?ciency91
3.9Carbon intensity92
3.10The needs of the boiler installation93
3.11Hydraulic stability93
3.12Return water temperature94
3.13Pressure in the boiler circuit94
3.14Fuel supply96
3.14.1Natural gas96
3.14.2LPG99
3.14.3Oil100
3.15Ventilation of the boiler plant room105
3.16Water treatment108
4 Alternative Means of Heat Generation113
4.1Scope of the alternatives113
4.2Combined heat and power units113
4.2.1The concept113
4.2.2Application to building services114
4.2.3Principal elements of a small-scale packaged
CHP unit114
4.2.4Typical energy balance for a small-scale  packaged CHP unit116
4.2.5Fuels for CHP117
4.2.6The economic case119
4.2.7The CHP unit as part of a boiler installation122
4.3Heat pumps126
4.3.1Principle of operation126
4.3.2Heat sources126
4.3.3Coef?cient of performance128
4.3.4Refrigerants129
4.3.5Application to LPHW heating systems130
4.3.6Cost and environmental performance133
4.4Energy crops and bio-diesel135
4.5Waste as a fuel136

5 Flueing137
5.1Purpose of the ?ue137
5.2Flue and chimney137
5.3Types of ?ue138
5.4Flue draught138
5.5Natural-draught ?ues144
5.6Mechanical-draught ?ues144
5.7Balanced ?ues149
5.8Flue dilution systems153
5.9Sizing of the ?ue156
5.10General design and construction of the ?ue159
5.11Flues for condensing boilers161

PART BSYSTEMS AND CONTROL 163
6 Room Heat Emitters165
6.1Introduction165
6.2General description of heat emitter types165
6.2.1Natural convectors165
6.2.2Fan convectors167
6.2.3Radiators168
6.2.4Radiant panels170
6.2.5Heated ?oors171
6.3Typical heat output rates172
6.3.1Natural convectors173
6.3.2Fan convectors174
6.3.3Radiators and radiant panels175
6.3.4Heated ?oors177
6.4Effect on thermal comfort177
6.5Heat loss rate and energy consumption178
6.6Safety issues181
6.7Controlling heat output rate181
6.7.1Modulation of water ?ow rate181
6.7.2Flow temperature modulation182
6.7.3Combined ?ow rate and temperature modulation183
6.8Under?oor heating183
6.8.1Upward heat ?ow183
6.8.2Downward heat ?ow184
6.8.3Thermal capacitance184
Appendix 6.1Thermal Comfort186
Appendix 6.2Emitter Heat Output Rate Analysis189

7Heating Circuits195
7.1Choice of ?ow and return water temperatures195
7.2Insulation of pipework196
7.2.1Economic insulation thickness197
7.2.2Environmental considerations198
7.2.3Other considerations198
7.3Pipework arrangements199
7.3.1Secondary circuit200
7.3.2Compensated temperature circuit201
7.4Variable volume ?ow201
7.4.1Variable volume pumping203
7.4.2Variable speed drives204
7.4.3Control of variable speed pumps205
7.5Control valves209
7.5.1Valve inherent characteristic211
7.5.2Installed characteristic212
7.5.3Recommended valve authorities213
7.6Forces acting on pipework213
7.6.1Types of support215
7.6.2Spacing of supports215
7.6.3Expansion and contraction216
7.6.4Forces arising from the ?uid218
Appendix 7.1Heat Loss from Pipework220
Appendix 7.2Idealised Pump Characteristics223
Appendix 7.3Forces Due to Fluid Flow225

8 Hot Water Services227
8.1Instantaneous versus storage227
8.2Central versus local systems228
8.3Sizing229
8.3.1Peak instantaneous demand229
8.3.2Time-averaged demand231
8.3.3CIBSE sizing charts for storage systems232
8.4Systems233
8.4.1Domestic storage systems233
8.4.2Non-domestic storage system235
8.4.3Unvented systems237
8.4.4Pumped storage237
8.4.5Hot water generators238
8.4.6Instantaneous239
8.5Solar hot water239
8.5.1Integration with HWS system239
8.5.2Ef?ciency and output of panel240
8.5.3Sizing of the system242
8.6Legionella242
Appendix 8.1Solar Panel Ef?ciency244

9 Sizing Central Boiler Plant247
9.1Design heat output247
9.2Traditional sizing approaches249
9.2.1CIBSE guidance249
9.2.2Plant size and intermittent operation250
9.2.3An economic approach to sizing255
9.3Optimum start control261
9.3.1Optimum start and compensator interaction265
9.3.2Optimum stop265

10 Matching Output to Demand267
10.1Relationship between heating demand, system sizing  and boiler capacity267
10.1.1Boiler ef?ciency267
10.1.2System seasonal ef?ciency269
10.2Designing the central plant arrangement269
10.2.1Plant con?guration270
10.3System con?guration272
10.3.1Weather compensation control272
10.3.2Calculating room and emitter temperatures  for practical schedules274
10.3.3The implications of compensator control for  the central plant278
10.4Primary ring main279
10.5Controlling boiler output280
10.5.1Temperature sensing281
10.5.2Single boiler with ?ow sensing281
10.5.3Multiple units with common header284
10.5.4Sequencing285
10.5.5Common ?ow temperature control286
10.5.6Temperature dilution effects287
10.5.7Flow prevention through un?red boilers287
10.5.8Injection systems288
10.5.9Large systems with cascade control or heat  metering289
10.5.10Heat metering290
10.5.11High/low ?ring291
10.5.12Multiple units with modulating burners291
10.5.13Condensing boilers292
10.5.14Anti-cycling and add-on devices292

11Energy Consumption of Heating Systems295
11.1Degree-day based estimates295
11.1.1Calculating degree-days297
11.1.2Calculation errors298
11.1.3Base temperature correction300
11.1.4Application of degree-days300
11.1.5Uncertainty304
11.2Monitoring and targeting of existing systems307
11.2.1Performance lines307
11.2.2Scatter in the performance line308
11.2.3Applying the performance line309
11.2.4Base temperature and the performance line309
11.3Benchmarking311
11.4Normalisation312
11.5Minimising energy use in heating systems313
11.5.1Design313
11.5.2Hot Water Services (HWS)314
11.5.3Management314
Index316

Heating Systems, Plant and Control



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Gas Transmission & Distribution Piping Systems

Foreword vii
CommitteePersonnel ix
Introduction xii
SummaryofChanges xiv
GeneralProvisionsandDefinitions
801. General 1
802. ScopeandIntent 1
803. PipingSystemsDefinitions 2
804. PipingSystemsComponentDefinitions 4
805. Design,Fabrication,Operation,andTestingTerms 6
807QualityAssurance 7

Chapter I Materials and Equipment
810. Material and Equipment 8
811. Qualification of Materials and Equipment 8
812. Materials for Use in Cold Climates 9
813. Marking 9
814. Material Specifications 9
815. Equipment Specifications 9
816. Transportation of Line Pipe 10
817. Conditions for the Reuse of Pipe 10

Chapter II Welding
820. Welding 12
821. General 12
822. Preparation for Welding 12
823. Qualification of Procedures and Welders 12
824.Preheating 13
825. Stress Relieving 13
826. Inspection of Welds 14
827. Repair or Removal of Defective Welds in Piping Intended to Operate at
Hoop Stress Levels of 20% or More of the Specified Minimum Yield Strength 15



Chapter III Piping System Components and Fabrication Details
830. Piping System Components and Fabrication Details 16
831. Piping System Components 16
832. Expansion and Flexibility 22
833. Design for Longitudinal Stress 23
834. Supports and Anchorage for Exposed Piping 25
835. Anchorage for Buried Piping 26

Tables
831.42 Reinforcement of Welded Branch Connections,Special Requirements 21
832.2 Thermal Expansion of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel 22
832.5 Modulus of Elasticity for Carbon and Low Alloy Steel 23

Chapter IV Design,Installation,and Testing
840. Design,Installation,and Testing 27
841.Steel Pipe 29
842.Other Materials 40
843.Compressor Stations 46

844. Pipe-Type and Bottle-Type Holders 49
845. Control and Limiting of Gas Pressure 50
846. Valves 58
847. Vaults 58
848.Customers� Meters and Regulators 59
849. Gas Service Lines 60
Tables
841.114A. Basic Design Factor, F 30
841.114B. Design Factors for Steel Pipe Construction 31
841.115A.Longitudinal Joint Factor, E 32
841.116A. Temperature Derating Factor, T, for Steel Pipe 32
841.322.(f)Test Requirements for Pipelines and Mains to Operate at Hoop Stresses of 30% or More of the Specified Minimum Yield Strength of the Pipe 39
841.33.Maximum Hoop Stress Permissible During Test 39
842.214. Standard Thickness Selection Table for Ductile Iron Pipe 41
842.32(c). Wall Thickness and Standard Dimension Ratio for Thermoplastic Pipe 42
842.33(c). Diameter and Wall Thickness for Reinforced Thermo setting Plastic Pipe 42
842.396(c). Nominal Values for Coefficients of Thermal Expansion of Thermoplastic Pipe Materials 44

Chapter V Operating and Maintenance Procedures 850 Operating and Maintenance Procedures Affecting the Safety of Gas Transmission and Distribution Facilities 64
851. Pipeline Maintenance 66
852. Distribution Piping Maintenance 71
853. Miscellaneous Facilities Maintenance 74
854. Location Class and Changes in Number of Buildings Intended for Human Occupancy 76
855. Concentrations of People in Location Classes1 and 2 77
856. Pipeline Service Conversions 78

Table
854.1(c). Location Class 77
Chapter VI Corrosion Control
860. Corrosion Control 79
861. Scope 79
862. External Corrosion Control 79
863. Internal Corrosion Control 82
864. Pipelines in Arctic Environments 84
865. Pipelines in High-Temperature Service 85
866. Stress Corrosion and Other Phenomena 85
867. Records 86

Chapter VII Miscellaneous
870. Miscellaneous 87
871. Odorization 87
872. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Systems 87
873. Pipelines on Private Rights-of-Way of Electric Transmission Lines 88

Chapter VIII Offshore Gas Transmission
A800. Offshore Gas Transmission 89
A801. General 89
A802. Scope and Intent 89
A803.Offshore Gas Transmission Definitions 89
A811. Qualification of Materials and Equipment 90
A814. Material Specifications 90
A817.Conditions for the Reuse and Requalification of Pipe 90
A820. Welding Offshore Pipelines 91
A821. General 91
A823. Qualification of Procedures and Welders 91
A825. Stress Relieving 91
A826. Welding and Inspection Tests 91
A830. Piping System Components and Fabrication Details 92
A831. Piping System Components 92
A832. Expansion and Flexibility 92
A834. Supports and Anchorage for Exposed Piping 92
A835. Anchorage for Buried Piping 92
A840. Design,Installation,and Testing 92
A841. Design Considerations 92
A842. Strength Considerations 93
A843. Compressor Stations 96
A844. On-Bottom Stability 97
A846. Valves 98
A847. Testing 98
A850. Operating and Maintenance Procedures Affecting the Safety of Gas Transmission Facilities 99
A851. Pipeline Maintenance 99
A854. Location Class 100
A860. Corrosion Control of Offshore Pipelines 100
A861. Scope 100
A862. External Corrosion Control 100
A863. Internal Corrosion Control 102
Table
A842.22. Design Factors for Offshore Pipelines,Platform Piping,and Pipeline Risers 94

Chapter IX Sour Gas Service
B800. Sour Gas Service 103
B801. General 103
B802. Scope and Intent 103
B803. Sour Gas Terms and Definitions 103
B813. Marking 104
B814. Material Specifications 104
B820. Welding Sour Gas Pipelines 104
B821. General 104
B822. Preparation for Welding 104
B823. Qualifications of Procedures and Welders 104
B824. Preheating 104
B825. Stress Relieving 104
B826. Welding and Inspection Tests 105
B830. Piping System Components and Fabrication Details 105
B831. Piping System Components 105
B840. Design,Installation,and Testing 105
B841. Steel Pipe 105
B842. Other Materials 106
B843. Compressor Stations 106
B844. Pipe-Type and Bottle-Type Holders 106
B850. Additional Operating and Maintenance Considerations Affecting the Safety of Sour Gas Pipelines 106
B851. Pipeline Maintenance 107
B855. Concentrations of People in Location Classes 1 and 2 107
B860. Corrosion Control of Sour Gas Pipelines 107
B861. General 107
B862. External Corrosion Control 107
B863. Internal Corrosion Control 108
B866. Stress Corrosion and Other Phenomena 108

Appendices
A. References 109
B. Numbers and Subjects of Standards and Specifications That Appear in Appendix A 112
C. Publications That Do Not Appear in the Code or Appendix A 113
D. Specified Minimum Yield Strength for Steel Pipe Commonly Used in Piping Systems 115
E. Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors 117
F. Extruded Headers and Welded Branch Connections 123
G. Testing of Welders Limited to Work on Lines Operating at Hoop Stresses of Less Than 20% of the Specified Minimum Yield Strength 128
H. Flattening Test for Pipe 129
I. End Preparations for Butt welding 130
J. Commonly Used Conversion Factors 137
K. Criteria for Cathodic Protection 141
L. Determination of Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipe 143
M. Gas Leakage Control Criteria 144
N. Recommended Practice for Hydrostatic Testing of Pipelines in Place 151
O. Preparation of Technical Inquiries to the ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31 153
P. Nomenclature for Figures 154
Q. Scope Diagrams 155
R. Estimating Strain in Dents 158
Index 160

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